Climate change is reshaping Bhutan’s rural economy, prompting migrations that should be better planned for, writes a trio of regional experts
Sonam and Pema left their village in Eastern Bhutan a decade ago, seeking a new life at the Pasakha Industrial Estate, perched on the border with India. Once farmers, the couple found their agricultural livelihood increasingly unsustainable, as climate change and interwoven rural crises – including escalating human-wildlife conflict – made farming a constant struggle. Their village fields now lie fallow, while Sonam and Pema have traded soil and seeds for factory shifts.
Their story-weaved by experts like Namdu Lhamo, Jelle J.P. Wouters, and Binaya Pasakhala- echoes a growing trend across Bhutan.
Fallow Fields and Changing Livelihoods
The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MoAL) conducts the RNR Census, a comprehensive survey of rural livelihoods, agricultural productivity, and natural resource management. Its 2019 edition revealed that 26,757 of Bhutan’s 268,711 hectares of arable land lay fallow. The trio’s unpublished research and intermittent reports since then suggest this number is rising.
In the years gone by, the government policies were aimed to expand arable land and boost agricultural productivity. Today, the focus has shifted. Countering rural depopulation and reviving fallow land have become national priorities. But for many Bhutanese like Sonam and Pema, the lure of economic opportunities elsewhere has proven stronger.
A Nation on the Move
The couple’s migration is part of a broader pattern. Bhutan’s 2017 Population and Housing Census revealed that nearly half (49.7%) of the population had relocated internally, driven by factors ranging from economic hardship to environmental pressures. International migration – particularly to Australia – has also surged in recent years, with young, highly educated Bhutanese seeking greener pastures abroad.
Climate change is an increasingly significant factor in these decisions. Across South Asia, migration is gaining recognition as an adaptation strategy, helping households diversify income sources and reduce climate risks. Yet the precarious conditions faced by many migrant communities – poor housing, low wages, and environmental vulnerabilities – often go unaddressed.
Pasakha: Land of Opportunity, Land of Risk
In Pasakha, Sonam and Pema have built a makeshift home of wood and corrugated iron sheets. Their mud floor turns to sludge during monsoon rains, and windstorms repeatedly loosen the roof. With no land of their own, investing in better housing feels like a gamble.
Their two children attend a local school, but getting there requires crossing a flood-prone river, making education another casualty of climate unpredictability. Sonam recalls how her daughter, once a top student, failed her sixth-grade exams after missing weeks of school when floods washed away the bridge. “That year, the monsoon was particularly heavy. The river flooded and the bridge was washed away.”
Health is another concern. Pasakha’s industrial estate pumps pollutants into the air, contributing to respiratory problems that are aggravated by the family’s poor housing conditions. A 2021 environmental report co-published by the Bhutanese government and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) revealed that Pasakha’s air pollution was “alarmingly high.”
Flooding presents an ever-looming danger. In 2000, a devastating flood displaced nearly 200 families and left several factories damaged. Kinley, another migrant worker from eastern Bhutan, recalls being at work when floodwaters surged, sweeping away his home and possessions. His family evacuated to nearby Phuentsholing – another border town – while he was stranded inside the factory for over a week, unsure if they had survived. After a long trek through India, Kinley was reunited with his family. With their home gone, they moved across the border to Jaigaon, India, where they rented a single room.
Eventually, Kinley’s factory provided new housing, and he continued working to educate his four children. His eldest daughter has since migrated to Australia, where she sends remittances that significantly improve the family’s living conditions.
Seeking Stability Abroad
Kinley’s experience is not unique. Australia now hosts Bhutan’s largest migrant community, swelled by second-generation migrants from areas like Pasakha. While this migration raises concerns about “brain drain” and labour shortages, it has also led to record-high remittance inflows. In 2024, Bhutan recorded its highest ever remittance levels, sparking debates about a shift towards a remittance-driven economy.
For Sonam and Pema, life in Pasakha has brought both hardship and resilience. Their earnings support not just their immediate household but also relatives back in the east. While agriculture in their home village continues to decline, their migration has offered economic relief and strengthened their extended family’s ability to weather climate impacts.
Migration as a Choice, Not a Necessity
Sonam, Pema, and Kinley’s stories illustrate the dual nature of migration as an adaptation strategy. While it can offer financial stability, it often exposes families to new environmental and socioeconomic risks. To make migration a true pathway to opportunity – rather than a desperate survival tactic – policymakers must address rural development, urban resilience, and climate adaptation in tandem.
Across the Hindu Kush Himalaya region, internal migrants frequently lack documentation, making it difficult for governments to track population movements and plan accordingly. This gap hampers disaster preparedness, infrastructure development, and access to essential services.
There is an urgent need for urban policies that reduce climate risks and ensure marginalized migrant populations have access to housing, education, and healthcare. Simultaneously, efforts to bolster rural livelihoods could help slow migration flows and ensure that moving is always a choice – one motivated by ambition and opportunity, rather than necessity.
This story was published in Dialogue Earth, an independent non-profit dedicated to producing exceptional environmental journalism and informed conversations on urgent climate and sustainability topics. Its unique model brings local voices to global audiences and global stories of hope, action and change to local communities.
Namdu Lhamo is a research assistant at the Himalayan Centre for Environmental Humanities at the Royal Thimphu College (RTC), while her colleague Jelle J. P. Wouters is an anthropology professor and the director of research and development at the same college. Binaya Pasakhala is a governance and institutions analyst at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMIOD) in Nepal.
This research was supported by the SUCCESS project, funded by UK aid from the UK government and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada, as part of the Climate Adaptation and Resilience research programme.
Tashi Namgyal from Thimphu
